The mBridge Moment: How Cross-Border CBDCs Are Rewriting Global Settlement
- THE MAG POST
- 2 days ago
- 17 min read
Gold’s surge above $3,200/oz has a familiar headline—safe-haven buying—but an unfamiliar catalyst: a security narrative that has escaped the lab and entered portfolio construction. The “Quantum Panic” of 2026 is less about people suddenly understanding qubits and more about a simple investor instinct: when the rules of verification feel unstable, preference shifts toward assets that do not rely on verification at all.
In practical terms, digital value depends on cryptography, identity, access control, and networks. Each layer can be robust, but each layer also has a failure mode—software bugs, key theft, exchange insolvency, ledger governance disputes, sanctions, outages, or simply the fear that a new class of computer could compress the time-to-break from “never” to “maybe sooner than expected.” Gold, by contrast, is a bearer asset in its physical form. It does not need passwords, uptime, or consensus. That difference is now being priced like insurance.
The twist is that the “analog pivot” is not only a retail phenomenon. Central banks, institutional allocators, and private wealth managers are treating physical bars—allocated, serialized, vaulted—as a strategic hedge against a world where digital records, even if not actually broken, are perceived as breakable. Perception is often enough to move markets.
The global financial system is entering a rare “architecture change” moment—one that happens perhaps once in a generation. For roughly 50 years, cross-border payments have relied on correspondent banking networks: a chain of intermediaries, each taking fees, holding liquidity, and managing settlement risk while messages travel over systems like SWIFT. It works, but it is slow, expensive, and operationally complex.
As of January 2026, the mBridge platform—born from the BIS Innovation Hub and partner central banks—has moved into full-scale commercial operation and has reportedly cleared its first $100 billion in monthly commercial transactions. That milestone signals something bigger than a successful pilot: it suggests that multi-CBDC platforms can settle international obligations peer-to-peer, in seconds, with atomic settlement and continuous availability.
What follows is not merely a faster version of the old rails. Cross-border CBDCs change how liquidity is pre-positioned, how FX spreads form, how compliance is embedded, and how geopolitical power expresses itself in payment plumbing. The “mBridge moment” is the point at which the industry must treat correspondent banking not as the default, but as the legacy option.
1) Why correspondent banking dominated—and why its limits now matter
How the traditional model actually clears money
Most people hear “SWIFT” and assume it moves money. In practice, SWIFT is primarily a messaging layer: it helps banks communicate payment instructions. The funds typically move through a chain of correspondent accounts—nostro/vostro balances—held across banks in different jurisdictions. Each hop introduces cost, time, reconciliation work, and sometimes a need to pre-fund liquidity.
In a simplified corridor, an importer’s bank (Bank A) may not have a direct relationship with the exporter’s bank (Bank D). So Bank A routes through correspondents (Bank B and Bank C), each debiting and crediting accounts on their own ledgers. Finality is a mosaic of local settlement systems, cut-off times, and bilateral credit arrangements.
This model became dominant because it solved a hard problem with the tools available: diverse legal systems, national RTGS infrastructures, and limited real-time connectivity. It also aligned with the commercial incentives of global banks—fees for wire transfers, FX spreads, and balance-sheet use.
But the same features that made correspondent banking resilient also make it structurally “frictional.” You can optimize messaging formats and compliance workflows, yet still be constrained by intermediate balance sheets, time zones, and fragmented settlement finality.
The hidden costs: liquidity traps, settlement risk, and FX spread pressure
The correspondent model carries three persistent cost centers.
First: trapped liquidity. Banks and corporates pre-position funds across multiple jurisdictions to ensure they can pay on demand. Those balances are costly in an era of tighter capital rules and rising rates. Liquidity fragmentation is especially painful for emerging-market corridors where credit lines are limited and correspondent relationships are fragile.
Second: settlement and counterparty risk. If legs of a transaction settle at different times (or on different systems), participants can be exposed. The classic example is FX settlement risk, historically captured by the “Herstatt risk” problem. Even with PvP systems in some major currencies, many corridors remain exposed to timing gaps.
Third: FX and fee opacity. End users often see a headline fee but not the embedded spread and intermediate charges. When multiple intermediaries touch a payment, the final cost becomes uncertain until after settlement.
These costs are tolerable when alternatives are marginal. They become intolerable when a credible alternative offers real-time settlement, reduced pre-funding needs, and programmatic compliance—especially at scale.
2) What mBridge is (and what makes it different from “faster SWIFT”)
Multi-CBDC platforms in plain English: shared rails, sovereign money
mBridge is best understood as a shared settlement platform where multiple central banks issue and redeem their respective CBDCs, and approved participants transact directly on a common ledger. Instead of sending messages to move claims across correspondents, participants exchange tokenized central bank money representing different currencies, with settlement rules enforced by the platform.
The crucial distinction is who the money is and where finality occurs. In correspondent banking, the “money” often takes the form of commercial bank deposits and interbank claims that depend on multiple ledgers. In a multi-CBDC system, the settlement asset is central bank money—digital cash-like claims on the issuing central bank—settling on a platform designed for cross-border finality.
That enables a set of outcomes that are hard to replicate with incremental upgrades to legacy rails:
• Atomic settlement: payment and delivery (or FX legs) can complete together or not at all.• Continuous availability: a platform can run closer to 24/7 than traditional systems with cut-off times.• Embedded rule execution: compliance and transaction constraints can be enforced at the point of settlement, not merely screened before and after.
When advocates say mBridge can “bypass SWIFT,” they mean it can bypass the need for SWIFT-style messaging to coordinate a chain of intermediaries. Messaging will still exist—participants still need instructions and records—but it no longer defines the settlement architecture.
Real-time settlement math: time, risk, and capital efficiency
To see why this is transformative, consider the economic value of compressing settlement time. A basic way to frame it value is to treat delayed settlement as a working-capital lockup and risk window. If a firm must reserve liquidity for a payment amount P for T days, and its cost of capital is r annually, the rough financing cost is:
Now replace multi-day settlement (say T = 2 to 5) with near-instant settlement (T approaching zero). The financing cost collapses, but more importantly, the firm’s need to maintain buffers across time zones and holidays declines. Multiply that across a supply chain, across thousands of payments, and the “small” per-payment benefit turns into macro-level efficiency.
Similarly, settlement risk exposure scales with both size and time. A simplified exposure model is:
Reduce T, and you reduce the window in which operational failure, counterparty distress, or market discontinuity can strike. That translates into lower capital consumption for banks and lower margin requirements for some transaction structures, depending on regulation and risk models.
Finally, FX pricing is sensitive to uncertainty and balance-sheet usage. When settlement becomes atomic and immediate, intermediaries have fewer reasons to widen spreads “just in case.” That does not eliminate FX spreads—markets still price volatility, liquidity, and credit—but it can compress the portion of spreads that exists primarily to cover settlement friction.
3) The mBridge moment: what changes immediately in trade, FX, and bank treasury
Trade settlement in seconds: new working-capital patterns for corporates
In traditional trade flows, payment terms and settlement mechanics are intertwined. Corporates plan around cut-off times, correspondent routing uncertainty, and the possibility that funds arrive late or with unexpected deductions. This encourages defensive behavior: holding extra cash, insisting on more conservative terms, or paying for expedited channels that still aren’t truly real-time.
With cross-border CBDC settlement, a corporate treasury team can begin to treat international payments as closer to domestic instant payment behavior—especially for high-volume, standardized trade flows. Three effects tend to appear early:
1) Reduced precautionary balances. If funds can be moved and settled quickly, fewer “just-in-case” balances are needed in each currency and jurisdiction. That releases capital for inventory, capex, or debt reduction.
2) Tighter reconciliation loops. Real-time settlement paired with structured data reduces time spent matching invoices, payment references, and confirmations. The operational savings can rival the headline fee savings.
3) Faster cash conversion cycles. When suppliers receive confirmed funds quickly, they can offer better pricing or more flexible terms. Over time, this can feed into measurable improvements in supply chain finance and trade credit structures.
This is where the “frictionless global economy” narrative originates—but in practice it will emerge unevenly. Corridors connected to multi-CBDC rails will behave differently from those that remain on correspondent networks, and corporates will optimize corridor-by-corridor.
FX and “bridge currency” dependence: does this accelerate de-dollarization?
A defining feature of the old cross-border system is the role of “bridge currencies,” especially the US dollar, in routing and liquidity. Many trades between two non-USD currencies still use USD legs because USD liquidity is deep, correspondent networks are mature, and price discovery is efficient.
Multi-CBDC settlement changes the calculus in two ways:
Direct corridor liquidity improves. If multiple CBDCs can be swapped and settled on the same platform with atomic PvP, it becomes easier to support direct currency pairs. Liquidity providers can quote tighter spreads when settlement is fast and final, and when they can recycle capital efficiently.
Pre-funding patterns can shift. Instead of holding large USD balances as the “universal lubricant,” institutions may hold more diversified liquidity—potentially including regional settlement assets—because conversion and settlement can happen in one coordinated flow.
Does that automatically mean “de-dollarization”? Not automatically. Dollar dominance is rooted in trade invoicing, debt markets, derivatives, commodity pricing, and the broader credibility of US institutions. Payment rails are only one layer. However, rails influence behavior at the margin. If the cost and complexity of settling in non-USD currencies falls meaningfully, more trade may be invoiced and settled outside USD—especially where geopolitical incentives align.
A practical way to think about it is not as a binary outcome, but as a reduction in “mandatory USD usage” in specific corridors. Over time, that can compound into meaningful shifts in liquidity distribution and pricing power.
4) Financial sovereignty vs. transparency: the governance and privacy bargain
Programmable money and policy reach: what central banks can enforce
CBDCs introduce the possibility of policy and compliance rules being enforced at the level of the settlement asset. This is often summarized—sometimes carelessly—as “programmable money.” The reality is more nuanced: most central banks are not seeking to program consumer behavior, but they do want stronger control over settlement integrity, sanctions compliance, and systemic risk.
In a multi-CBDC platform, rules can be expressed as constraints such as:
• Who can hold and transfer certain CBDC instruments (whitelisting, tiered access).• Transaction limits by participant type, corridor, or use case.• Conditional settlement (e.g., PvP for FX, DvP for tokenized securities).• Compliance gating where transfers fail if required data, authorizations, or risk checks are not satisfied.
From a system-stability perspective, this is powerful. It can reduce illicit finance exposure, lower operational error rates, and limit contagion channels. It also creates a new locus of control: the platform governance and rule-set become as important as national regulations.
For commercial banks, this can feel like disintermediation—not only because settlement bypasses correspondent chains, but because some compliance and workflow logic moves “into the rail.” That shifts value away from intermediation and toward services such as liquidity provision, credit underwriting, treasury optimization, and enterprise integration.
Data, privacy, and surveillance risk: designing for proportionality
The most intense debate is not about speed; it is about visibility. Real-time settlement on a shared platform can increase observability of flows—by central banks, by platform operators, and potentially by other participants depending on the architecture.
Privacy is not a single switch; it is an engineering and governance spectrum. Key design questions include:
• What transaction data is visible to whom? Counterparties, intermediaries, regulators, and platform operators may each need different views.• Is identity disclosed by default? Or can the system use privacy-preserving techniques with regulated disclosure triggers?• How is data stored and for how long? Retention policies determine the “blast radius” of breaches and misuse.• What due process governs data access? Clear legal standards matter as much as cryptography.
A useful principle is proportionality: the system should reveal what is necessary to manage risk and enforce law, while minimizing exposure of commercially sensitive and personal data. Technically, that can involve partitioning, permissioned access, selective disclosure, and cryptographic methods that prove compliance without broadcasting full details.
But technology cannot substitute for trust. If market participants believe that cross-border CBDC rails become instruments of financial surveillance or political leverage, adoption will be cautious and fragmented. Conversely, if governance frameworks are credible and transparent, the efficiency benefits will pull usage forward.
5) Who wins, who loses, and what to watch next in 2026 and beyond
Commercial banks: from correspondents to liquidity, credit, and infrastructure providers
The headline claim—“CBDCs end correspondent banking”—needs precision. Correspondent banking will not disappear overnight; it will shrink where multi-CBDC rails provide superior economics and acceptable governance. In other words, correspondent banking becomes a fallback and a specialist service, not the default.
For commercial banks, the strategic pivot is clear:
• Liquidity services. Banks that can efficiently source, price, and manage multi-currency liquidity will remain essential, especially for corporates that don’t want to manage CBDC positions directly.
• Credit and risk transformation. Real-time settlement reduces some risks but does not eliminate trade credit, counterparty risk, or the need for financing. Banks can expand services around receivables, inventory, guarantees, and hedging.
• Integration and compliance tooling. Enterprises will need ERP integration, payment orchestration, policy controls, auditability, and exception management. Banks can productize these as platforms rather than per-payment services.
• New correspondent-like roles. Even in multi-CBDC ecosystems, participants may need access sponsorship, onboarding, compliance screening, and operational support—functions that resemble correspondent banking but with different economics and technology.
The banks most exposed are those whose cross-border profitability depends heavily on opaque spreads and messaging-era frictions. The banks best positioned are those that can compete on liquidity, risk, and integration—where clients pay for outcomes, not routing complexity.
Adoption barriers and the next indicators: interoperability, sanctions, and corridor economics
Despite the January 2026 commercialization narrative, adoption is not guaranteed to be linear. The next phase depends on whether multi-CBDC platforms can clear three hurdles simultaneously:
Interoperability at scale. Multiple CBDC designs will coexist. The world may see several regional platforms, each with its own rulebook. The winning architecture will be the one that supports interoperability—technical, legal, and operational—without diluting sovereignty.
Sanctions and geopolitical alignment. Cross-border payment rails are geopolitical infrastructure. If major economic blocs perceive multi-CBDC systems as tools to evade sanctions or reshape influence, fragmentation will intensify. Adoption will cluster along political and trade alliances.
Corridor-by-corridor economics. The strongest signal will be pricing and reliability in specific trade corridors. Watch for measurable compression in end-to-end fees, reduced payment failure rates, and shortened settlement times for real commercial flows—not just pilot volumes.
To make this concrete, market participants can track a simple “corridor advantage” metric:
Where F approximates total fees and spreads, S approximates settlement time cost (working capital), and R approximates risk and operational loss expectancy. When A remains consistently positive after compliance and integration costs, adoption tends to persist.
The “mBridge moment” is ultimately about this: when the new rail is not just faster, but economically inevitable. If platform governance earns trust and corridor advantages remain durable, correspondent banking will not end everywhere—but its era as the default global backbone will.
1) Why Gold at $3,200 Now: The Security Premium, Not Just Inflation
Gold’s new bid: a “trust shock” layered on top of macro factors
Gold rarely moves on a single variable. Real yields, currency strength, inflation expectations, and geopolitical risk still matter. But the 2026 move has an additional component: a security premium. Investors are not only hedging purchasing-power erosion; they are hedging the integrity of digital ownership itself—especially for assets whose custody and transfer are cryptography-dependent from end to end.
Think of the price of gold as a combination of baseline drivers plus an insurance surcharge. A simplified framing is:
Importantly, “quantum risk” here is not a claim that all encryption has already failed. Markets price uncertainty and asymmetric outcomes. If the downside scenario is “ownership can be contested or stolen at scale,” even a low probability can justify paying up for an asset with fewer digital dependencies.
This is why “Gold Price 2026” has become less about CPI prints and more about confidence in rails: who can prove they own something, how quickly ownership can be transferred, and what happens if verification is questioned.
Supply squeeze mechanics: mints, delivery delays, and the scarcity of “immediately deliverable” metal
The “Great Analog Pivot” is also colliding with a real-world bottleneck: converting paper demand (ETFs, unallocated accounts) into deliverable physical supply is not frictionless. Even when vaulted metal exists in aggregate, it may not be in the right form, location, or ownership structure to meet sudden demand for allocated bars and coins.
When investors demand physical delivery, the market shifts from “exposure to gold” to “possession of gold.” That shift forces repricing in the most constrained segment of the supply chain: refining capacity, minting capacity, assay and logistics, and vaulted inventory that is truly unencumbered. Reports of multi-month backlogs are consistent with a panic that is operational, not merely financial.
The pricing impact can be understood as a convenience yield on immediacy—buyers pay for certainty that the metal exists, is allocated, and can be delivered. If we describe the friction as an effective “delivery premium,” then the all-in cost can be expressed as:
In plain language: the more people want “gold you can touch” rather than “gold you can reference,” the more those premia matter. This is also why some investors who are not ideologically pro-gold still buy it: it is a hedge against the operational fragility of digital settlement and custody.
2) The Great Q-Day Scare: What Quantum Computing Means for Money
Where quantum threatens: keys, signatures, and the psychology of “hackable” assets
Quantum computing is not a single monolithic threat; it targets specific mathematical problems. The market’s fear centers on public-key cryptography, which underpins identity and authorization in many systems. If a sufficiently capable quantum computer could efficiently solve certain problems (like integer factorization or discrete logarithms at relevant sizes), it could weaken widely used public-key schemes.
A simplified way to describe the inflection is that classical brute-force costs scale too steeply to be practical, while certain quantum algorithms change the scaling. For example, if an attacker’s work factor drops from “astronomical” to “merely expensive,” the threat becomes fundable. You can represent that intuition as a ratio:
Digital assets can become “hackable” in three distinct ways:
1) Key compromise: If private keys are stolen (by malware, phishing, insider theft, or a future cryptographic break), assets move irreversibly.
2) Ledger-layer compromise: If a ledger’s integrity is challenged (consensus failures, bugs, or credible attacks), ownership becomes disputable.
3) Custody compromise: If exchanges or custodians fail, users discover they owned a claim, not the asset.
Quantum fear amplifies all three because it reframes them as systemic rather than episodic. Even if quantum capability is years away, the possibility introduces “timeline risk”—the risk that long-term holders must migrate, upgrade, or accept exposure.
What quantum does not automatically break: symmetric encryption, migration paths, and time horizons
It is crucial to separate market narrative from technical inevitability. Many systems can adapt. Symmetric cryptography (used for bulk data encryption) can be strengthened with larger keys, and the industry is actively standardizing post-quantum cryptography (PQC) for public-key use cases. In other words, the world is not helpless; it is in transition.
So why does gold still benefit? Because transitions are messy. Migration creates windows of vulnerability: legacy systems persist, users fail to upgrade, custodians lag, and interoperability breaks. Even when a protocol can be upgraded, the asset holder may not control the upgrade path (think: platform dependencies, custodial structures, regulatory approvals, and governance disputes).
The expected risk is not simply “will quantum break everything tomorrow,” but “how much uncertainty and operational error will be introduced during the migration.” A basic expected-loss framing is:
3) Central Banks, “Analog Reserves,” and the Re-Monetization of Trust
Why central banks are accumulating physical gold (and why it matters to price)
A reported 40% year-over-year rise in central-bank physical gold accumulation is not a symbolic gesture; it’s a structural demand signal with price consequences. Central banks buy in size, buy consistently, and often buy with multi-year horizons. When they tilt toward allocated physical bars instead of digital claims, they remove float from the market that would otherwise dampen volatility.
Central banks are motivated by a mix of reserve diversification, sanctions risk, settlement optionality, and credibility. In a world where cross-border payments and reserve assets can be politicized or operationally constrained, bullion is an asset with fewer counterparties. It’s not that gold is “perfect,” but it is resilient to several failure modes that worry policymakers: asset freezes, payment-network disruptions, and confidence shocks.
There is also an optics component: when the stewards of fiat credibility accumulate gold, private actors interpret it as validation of gold’s role as a reserve of trust. Markets are narrative machines. Central-bank actions become a public signal that “analog reserves” remain relevant.
Gold vs digital debt instruments: counterparty layers and settlement finality
Many popular stores of value are ultimately claims on someone else: bank deposits are claims on banks, bonds are claims on issuers, stablecoins are claims on reserves and legal structures, and even some “gold exposure” products are claims on intermediaries. Physical gold held in allocated form reduces those layers.
To make the contrast concrete, consider a stylized counterparty stack. A digital instrument can involve multiple dependencies—issuer solvency, custodian integrity, legal enforceability, and technical security—while a bearer asset compresses the dependency graph. You can conceptualize “attack surface” as roughly proportional to the number of independent failure points:
This does not mean digital instruments are inherently bad; it means they are complex. Complexity is fine—until the environment changes. The “Great Q-Day” scare is one such environment change, because it reframes technical security as a macro variable rather than a back-office detail.
For investors, the takeaway is that gold’s rally is not just about fear; it’s about reducing dependency count when dependency reliability is being repriced.
4) Vault-Tech and Fractional Bars: How the Gold Market Is Being Rebuilt for a Digital Age
The rise of “offline custody” as a consumer product
One of the most interesting second-order effects of the 2026 rally is the “vault-tech” boom: startups offering fractional ownership of specific, allocated bars stored in high-security facilities, with auditable bar lists, insurance wrappers, and access controls marketed as “offline.” The pitch is simple: get gold’s quantum-resistant property (no cryptographic dependency for existence) while keeping the convenience of app-based management.
Done well, this model solves real frictions: storage, insurance, verification, and liquidity. But it also introduces a new trust layer: you are trusting the vault operator, the auditor, the insurer, and the legal structure that defines your claim. In other words, some “digital gold” products reintroduce the very counterparty risk investors were trying to exit.
The market is therefore bifurcating into two camps:
Direct possession: coins/bars in personal custody (maximum sovereignty, maximum personal security burden).
Allocated vaulted ownership: professional custody with strong legal and audit controls (less personal burden, more institutional dependency).
The best solutions will make the dependency chain explicit and minimize it—clear title, segregation, frequent audits, and transparent redemption rules.
Practical due diligence: allocated vs unallocated, redemption rules, audits, and insurance
In a “physical gold hedge” strategy, the details of custody matter as much as the metal itself. Investors should understand a few key distinctions:
Allocated: specific bars are held in your name (or a legally segregated structure). You have title to identified metal. This is closest to “ownership.”
Unallocated: you hold a claim on a pool. The provider owes you gold, but you may be an unsecured creditor in stress scenarios.
Redeemability: can you convert fractional holdings into delivery? What are the minimums, fees, and lead times?
Audit quality: independent audits, bar lists, serial numbers, and reconciliation frequency.
Insurance scope: does it cover theft, employee malfeasance, natural disasters, and transit? Who is the insured party?
5) Portfolio Implications: Gold, Crypto, and the New Definition of “Safe Haven”
Scenario planning: what happens if quantum risk fades—or intensifies
The most useful way to treat the Quantum Panic is scenario-based rather than predictive. Markets can overreact, but they can also reprice structural risk early. Consider three broad paths:
Scenario A: Managed transition. Post-quantum standards are adopted smoothly, major networks upgrade, and custody hygiene improves. In this case, the security premium in gold could compress, though gold may retain gains if central-bank demand remains elevated.
Scenario B: Persistent uncertainty. Upgrades occur unevenly, high-profile breaches continue (quantum-related or not), and headlines keep the fear bid alive. Gold retains a meaningful security premium; “analog wealth” stays culturally fashionable and financially relevant.
Scenario C: Disruptive event. A credible cryptographic break, mass key compromise, or systemic failure triggers forced migration and legal disputes over ownership. In that world, the value of assets that do not require digital verification can rise sharply—along with the value of robust, well-architected post-quantum systems that prove resilience.
For portfolios, the point is not to bet on one path; it is to avoid being fragile to any one path. Gold’s role is convexity against verification shocks: it may not maximize returns in a calm regime, but it can reduce tail risk when trust is questioned.
Building a “quantum-aware” allocation without falling for hype
A quantum-aware investor does not need to become a cryptographer, but should update the checklist for what “safe” means. A few principles can help:
1) Distinguish asset from wrapper. Physical gold (in hand or allocated) is different from gold exposure via a chain of intermediaries. Similarly, crypto held with strong self-custody practices is different from crypto held on opaque platforms.
2) Reduce single points of failure. Diversify custody, diversify access methods, and avoid concentration in one platform. Complexity isn’t the enemy; unexamined complexity is.
3) Prefer upgradeable security. Digital systems that can migrate to post-quantum primitives—and have governance capable of executing the migration—should command more confidence than systems locked into legacy cryptography.
4) Rebalance the “store of value” bucket. Many portfolios treated crypto as a hedge against fiat fragility. The 2026 shift adds a second dimension: cryptographic fragility. A balanced approach can include both—some exposure to digital upside and innovation, plus an allocation to analog resilience.
5) Think in terms of hedges, not religions. Gold does not need to “replace” crypto; it can hedge specific risks crypto is exposed to. Conversely, crypto can hedge certain political and monetary risks gold does not solve (portability, programmable transfer, and censorship-resistance—when implemented safely).
Ultimately, gold at $3,200 is a market message: security assumptions are now economic variables. Whether quantum computing delivers the feared capabilities on the timeline implied by headlines is almost secondary. What matters is that enough capital now believes that “hackable” is a relevant descriptor for some forms of wealth, and that belief is powerful enough to move the oldest store of value in finance.
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